Category: Samples

All aspects of the supply chain are important in getting products from the manufacturer to its designated location. When looking at the transportation aspect of the supply chain one must think about what comes directly before that process. That process is the packaging of products. The packaging of the products must be able to withstand the transportation part to ensure that goods get to their destination safely and intact. Transportation and packaging can go hand in hand and seeing how the two support each other during the supply chain is interesting.

There are many important steps and factors when transporting goods. Being sure to choose the right packaging is an extremely important assessment. Companies must do their due diligence prior to the shipment of a package to find the right packaging method that will benefit the company and also the consumer. They must also assess which mode of transportation will best support the package and which packaging method will best support the mode of transport used. There are issues that packagers must consider when packaging goods and they include sturdiness, the environment, the cost, and accessibility. There are a variety of trustworthy shipping containers available to choose from but finding the right one can be a daunting process due to the factors mentioned above. All types of packaging have to be secure during transport, no matter which mode is used.

The main types of packaging that is typically used are paper, plastic and wood. Paper based shipping containers are flexible and are one of the cheapest types of packaging. Paper based shipping containers usually include materials such as folding carton, paperboard cans and corrugated fiberboard boxes. Folding cartons are made from paperboard but are then cut and folded. Paper is made to be tough, light, and customizable to meet a person’s need. Cardboard boxes are usually easy to transport because they are stackable and space saving.

Wood based shipping containers are best used for heavy objects. Wood is used for many things when it comes to shipping materials, one example being pallets. Pallets are not a type of packaging, but they are used to hold heavier objects and make transporting those objects easier. Since they are already transport ready, all the transporters have to do is load it up on the truck. Packagers and transporters have to trust each other when it comes to each of them doing their jobs. For an example, transporters have to trust that packages are packaged correctly and can hold during transport. Wood is flexible and you can create a wooden crate to fit your shipping needs. This will allow for a smooth transport since you would not have to worry a lot about products moving around. Wood based shipping packages are good for protecting goods from getting damaged due to their hard, wooden outer surface. Easy to stack, wooden crates are good for stacking materials waiting to be shipped out. Wooden creates are great for storing items that are not yet ready to be shipped at the moment because they can be held in storage for a considerable amount of time. Even if there are delays in transportation, one could be assured that the wooden crates would not be in distress due to the longer transporting process. Raw wood can become contaminated with fungi and bacteria, which can be dangerous during transport because it can start to disintegrate.

Plastic is used to wrap certain products to hold packages together so that they are sturdy for transport. Having them held together with plastic wrap will hopefully keep packages sturdy and together during transport which will minimize damage to products. Many companies will reuse their plastic containers to save money. Plastic is convenient, but it can also be very dangerous at times, especially when it is heated. If a truck is too warm in the back, then it is possible that the plastic can melt together or cause precipitation which can possibly cause damage to packages.

During the packaging of any product, no matter how big or small, there is always a supply chain that most companies follow. When considering paper, plastic and wood packaging, you have to look at how each of the different material is going to fit in the chosen method of transportation, whether it is a truck, train or plane. Companies also have to be aware of how long each type of packaging material will handle being stored for any period of time and how it is going to keep up with the weather. All material will react differently to different weather and air pressure that can come from storage. Packaging anything must be carefully thought out and well executed to ensure safe delivery from the time it leaves a company’s warehouse to the time it arrives at the consumer’s door or its desired destination.

Paper, plastic and wood shipping containers are very important to the transportation industry. Without secured packaging, it would be hard to transport products from the manufacturer to costumers effectively. “From making transportation possible to protecting your goods during transit, logistic packaging is a vital part of the delivery process” (kimberleywatsonpackaging.co.uk). When trying to determine the best packaging method for shipment, knowing what mode of transportation is going to be used is a crucial factor. Whether it is wood, plastic or paper choosing the right packaging for shipping could make or break the company’s reputation. You could lose a lot of money if you don’t do the proper research needed or even harm yourself or others around you. Concerns such as how sturdy and how big or small the container is could cost you and depending on where your shipping the goods you could get fined. All modes of transportation have their advantages and disadvantages. It is on the company to pick and find the right one that will benefit your company and the consumer and also ease the transportation process.

Reference Page

Luis, Dominic. “Why the Wooden Crates Are the Preferred Material in the Shipping Industry.” Medium.com, Medium, 24 June 2015. Retrieved from medium.com/@dominic01luis/why-the-wooden-crates-are-the-preferred-material-in-the-shipping-industry-117ef2373faf.

“Paper-Based Packaging.” Tissue, American Forest

The transportation sector has always been subjected to terrorist’s threats and attacks. This usually derives from its presumed exposure due to its large network and infrastructure. Sadly we have experienced and witnessed some of those threats materialize, such in the case of the 9-11 terrorist attacks in New York City and the Pentagon in Virginia. After these terrorist attack, the United States waged a war against terror and all its supporters. In response to the decade-long war, small and large terrorist groups have made it their mission to terrorize and weaken the national economy in a swift strike. Consequently, lawmakers and national defense agencies have had to continuously adjust their strategy to adapt to the constant threat. However, have we forever thwarted their extremist reach or will impending attacks be the new norm for the transportation industry?

Background

According to the DOT’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG) 2016 report, the “U.S. transportation systems accommodate approximately 695 million domestic and international aviation passengers per year; 751 million passengers traveling on buses each year; more than 10 billion passenger trips on mass transit per year; 24 million students daily on school buses traveling more than 4 million miles annually; nearly 800,000 shipments of hazardous materials transported every day (60 percent by truck); more than 140,000 miles of railroad track; 3.9 million miles of roads; 604,000 bridges each spanning over 20 feet; 366 highway tunnels each over 100 meters in length; and nearly 2.6 million miles of pipeline.” (Scovel, n.d.). Following the 9-11 attacks, transport professionals across the Continental United States (CONUS) had to come up with quick solutions to the imminent dangers its stretched network was facing. Most of the attention was devoted to the aviation sector while little was accomplished to counter terrorist groups from penetrating the freight network while goods and hazardous materials flow through the multiple distribution systems. Other transport modes cannot be protected the same way airlines do, so the question remains, is sufficient being done to eradicate safety concerns within the supply and chain domain?

According to Johnstone (2007), “Before September 11, 2001, U.S. transportation security was limited in extent and purpose. Transit police and subway surveillance cameras sought to deter or detect criminal activity. Customs agents at ports looked for smugglers. In aviation, the only sector that had received significant security policy attention and resources from the federal government, the emphasis was overwhelmingly directed overseas. The events of 9/11 altered all of that. The federal government responded with a flurry of initiatives, including:

• The Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001, which created the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to be responsible for the security of all transportation modes and established deadlines for the implementation of specific aviation security measures.

• The Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002, which set security guidelines for ports and ships.

• The Homeland Security Act of 2002, which established the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) by combining 22 federal agencies, including TSA, the Coast Guard, the Customs Service, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).

• The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, which turned many of the 9/11 Commission’s recommendations, including those relating to transportation security, into statutory mandates.”

Although all the previous cited organizations continue to maintain an active role in the security of the transportation industry, the most commonly known group to satisfy this role is the TSA. As TSA increases its presence throughout other non-aviation sectors, it has to look at how to strategically deploy its resources. The 9/11 Public Discourse Project (PDP), stated that, as of 2005, progress in implementing the 9/11 Commission’s transportation security recommendations rated a “C” for airport checkpoint screening for explosives; a “C–” for the National Strategy for Transportation Security, a “D” for checked bag and cargo screening, and an “F” for airline passenger pre-screening (Johnstone, 2007). Though safety proposals and eventual applications have turned it into a safer network the industry is still exposed, as in the case of the freight airliner bomb plot that took place on late 2010 when two packages destined for Chicago were found to contain explosives. Cyber-attacks aimed at transport centers also represent a continuous threat and can result in exposed networks accessible to terrorist organizations. This could lead to the manipulation of rail or air systems possibly causing physical collisions and the potential loss of life. Just in 2009 in light of recent threats, President Obama declared “digital infrastructure” a strategic national asset (Lehmacher, 2015). This strategic move will guarantee the attention put into infrastructures matches the potential threat the industry currently faces. Regardless of government involvement, distribution systems need to have a more active role while attempting to minimize terrorist’s access to their platforms. The private sector should also play a more active role, and the primary need is to accept that future attacks are still a possibility and not just a thing of the past. A report made available by the University of Tennessee’s Supply Chain Management Faculty stated that while 66 percent of supply chain companies employed risk managers, virtually all of those internal functions ignored supply chain risk. In light of the current global developments that is a risky position to take (Lehmacher, 2015).

While there have been acceptable advancements accomplished in the security of transport resources and infrastructures, the absence of a united drive concerning the equal protection of the transport and distribution systems has some areas more exposed than others within the industry. The emotional side of witnessing two airliners crash into the Twin Towers of Lower Manhattan has had a substantial influence on the budget and spending towards protecting the transportation infrastructure. A clear example of this practice was the imbalanced allocation of funds in 2007. By 2006, the budget had increased from under $200 million in 2001 to over $8.5 billion, an over 4,000 percent increase in response to the security concerns of the post 9/11 era. Even with the budget surge, 70% of the funding (close to $6 billion) was being destined to aviation security while the other areas received little backing. During the same period, just $317 million was budgeted for the security of surface transportation, which covers both, rail and road systems (Johnstone, 2007). Looking at it objectively, the requested Department of Defense’s budget for 2018 is $639.1 billion, a little over half of its post-9/11 levels. Compared to this, the Department of Homeland Security 2018 budget request was $44.1 billion, an increase of only $25 million over its $19.5 billion in 2002.

Although aircraft can be weaponized with a high success and mortality rate, it does not renders other transport modes less lethal. Following the “September-11” a great deal of attention was given to the hazardous materials being moved over our roads and rail or flown over our airspace with fears of it being utilized for darker purposes. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), freight railroads heavily depend on information technology in their daily operations due to their enormous physical infrastructure. These systems are vulnerable to terrorist or hacker activity with a possible scenario being hazardous material control and eventual release. Through vulnerabilities within its network, terrorists could gain control of hazardous materials by cyber-attack and cause an accident, resulting in the release of hazardous materials (Tarr, McGurk,

Labor constitutes about 30 percent of costs for a carrier. DOT enforced maximum hours and safety requirements have led to a shortage of certified drivers. This has resulted in carriers paying drivers more per-mile and per-hour to compensate. Even with increasing driver benefits, there remains a shortage of 48,000 drivers within the industry during 2015 with projections to rise to 175,000 by 2024 (Novack 180). Labor costs are an important element of the motor carrier industry, which tends to have higher labor costs than other transportation methods. Increased truck size and non-unionized drivers have somewhat alleviated the rising costs of drivers.

Rising costs in fuel have led to innovations within the motor carrier industry to reduce the number of fuel costs. Fuel surcharges are commonly used by motor carriers to offset fuel costs. By passing fuel costs onto shippers based on a National Diesel Fuel Price Average published by the Department of Energy. This results in about 60 to 70 percent of increased fuel costs being recovered through this method (Novack 172). Adjustments to equipment have become one of the most widely used methods to offset fuel prices. Through modifications to mirrors, fairings, side skirts, and improved tire designs 1 to 6 percent improvements to aerodynamics and rolling resistance can be made. The cost structure of motor carriers is dominated by the variable cost of fuel (Novack 172).

Rising fuel costs for airlines has been a problem for airlines in the past because of the higher average prices of aircraft fuel. Within the industry, there has been a push for more fuel-efficient aircraft to compensate while also eliminating low-density routes to compensate. To

increase efficiency airlines have employed fleets of aircraft composed of baring aircraft sizes to improve efficiency. Larger planes service high demand routes while smaller, more efficient, aircraft service smaller lower-demand routes. A Boeing 747 consumes 3,411 gallons per hour. Using a cost of $1.45 per gallon of fuel, the fuel cost per hour for a 747 is $4,954.95 (Novack 242). This demonstrates the high operating fuel costs of airlines over water and motor transportation. Fuel and labor costs are important expense categories for airlines and have received much managerial attrition. The low fuel cost of the late 1990s helped airlines improve their profitability; today, fuel prices have stabilized and are lower than they were five years ago. New technology and equipment have also contributed to higher efficiency within the airline industry. Higher operating efficiency and expanded capacity have also been introduced through new aircraft.

Fuel costs for railroads make up the second-largest percentage of expenses. However, railroads use highly efficient means of propulsion., and productivity and fuel efficiency have dramatically increased since the early 20th century. The Staggers Rail Act and the deregulation of railroads have contributed to the more than 100 percent increase in revenue per ton-mile. At the same time locomotives numbers have declined by 50 percent since the early 20th century. Much of the increase in fuel costs has been offset by more efficient locomotive designs. In 2015, $6.67 billion was spent on fuel, showing a decrease of $4.8 billion from 2014 level of $11.4 billion (Novack 216). This decrease can be attributed to more efficient engines and the implementation of improved drag reduction features. High efficiency has led to railroads becoming more viable

for intermodal transportation, and as a result, have become the number one intermodal ton per mile carrier. As technology improves, railroads will continue to push towards greater efficiency. Computers are playing a larger role in every mode of transportation and railroads are no exception. Implementations of computers have led to ATACS and other advanced tracking systems. Computers also assist with brake control and power usage to ensure higher efficiency.

Rising fuel costs for water transportation would lead to much of the price increase being passed through to customers. Fuel surcharges and contract rates would become increasingly more prevalent to the water carrier industry much in the same way as the motor carrier industry, where fuel surcharges are common practice. 73 percent of the fuel consumed by water transportation is in the form of residual fuel oil. This form of oil is less refined as gasoline and diesel fuel which make up 11 percent and 16 percent of the fuel consumed respectively (Novack 264-265). Rising prices of oil may have less of an impact due to the industry’s heavy reliance on cheaper less refined fuel. Even with higher fuel costs, the water industry will continue to be vital to transportation. Airlines and motor transportation will also suffer from the increase in price, but the water industry is vital for transporting heavy and large cargo across continents that cannot be transported by aircraft.

Fossil fuels are a limited resource that is the primary source of fuel for all modes of transportation. Rising fuel costs will have a significant impact on the service models of each industry as they adjust to the added costs. Most of the cost will be passed to customers, but the market will only bear so much. Airlines consume massive amounts of fuel and have the lowest cost to ton rate and use the most expensive fuel per gallon of the transportation methods.

Because of this, airlines may suffer the most from a price increase of fuel and would possibly result in airlines becoming a far more specialized form of transportation. Aircraft have the advantage of speed over the other forms of transportation, an advantage that will be null if the price of fuel goes up. Railroads and water transportation will benefit the most due to their high efficiency and cost per ton. Both methods also have the advantage of carrying cargo that is unable to be transported by aircraft or truck. This is vital and irreplaceable and as such will be less affected by an increase in the cost of fuel.

References

Brand, D. (2009, May). Impacts of Higher Fuel Costs. Innovations for Tomorrow’s Transportation, 1.

IMPACT OF HIGH OIL PRICES ON FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION: MODAL SHIFT POTENTIAL IN FIVE CORRIDORS TECHNICAL REPORT (pp. 1-51, Tech.). (2008). TRANSPORTATION ECONOMICS

Part 1: review of O-D Estimation Methods Introduction:

Transport planners must provide comprehensive plans to mitigate the adverse effects of rapid urbanization and traffic congestion. Planning and managing transportation systems require precise and reliable estimations of O-D models are fundamental in planning and managing transportation systems.. In order to estimate the traffic demand within an origin-destination node it requires a plethora of contextual predictions including future economic and population growth, the effects of land use and travel needs, potential transport alternatives and detailed changes to infrastructure.

In this Literature review paper, an overview of four O-D Matrix estimations methods including; Fuzzy logic model, Kalmans Filtering, Neural network and Bayesian Inference will be evaluated:

Fuzzy Logic Model

Derived from the Fuzzy Set Theory by Lotfi Zadeh, the Fuzzy Logic Model is a method of providing a degree of truthiness to imprecise and uncertain data inputs. In comparison the backbone of the Fuzzy logic Model is similar to the way the human brain operates in performing results, this is achieved by further aggregating truths from a prior group of truths which exceed a certain threshold.

(https://searchenterpriseai.techtarget.com/definition/fuzzy-logic)

The Fuzzy logic model requires 3 processes. Beginning by ‘fuzzifying’ all input values into fuzzy membership functions. These fuzzy sets are a set of elements without a crisp (clear defining boundary) with a degree of membership which can be defined as either a triangle or trapezoid shaped curves.

These curves are called membership functions which allow every input space to be represented with a degree of membership, from a range of 0 to 1. In sequence, defuzzification occurs which is the process that maps a fuzzy set to a crisp set. These allows an interpretation of the degree of membership of the elements into a real value or specific decision.

Advantages:

– Fuzzy logic is conceptually easy to understand, and its functioning can be related to the human brain.

– Fuzzy logic is great in interpreting results when input data are assumed to be incomplete and imprecise. In example, for O-D Matrix estimations when input entries such as link counts, number of departures from origins and number of arrivals at destinations are scarce Fuzzy logic is capable of making an estimation.

Disadvantages:

– All factors are taken with the same value of importance. In the context of ODM estimation, parameters equally affect a travels route choice.

– New variables and systems cannot be directly inputted into Fuzzy logic models, a new Fuzzy logic model is required to incorporate and execute these data.

Case Study: A Fuzzy Logic set approach was utilised to estimate OD matrices in congested Brazilian Traffic networks.

Kalman Filtering

The Kalman filter is an optimal estimator algorithm capable of inferring parameters of interest (traffic flow, passenger flow, etc) from imprecise, indirect and uncertain observations that contain statistical noise and other inaccuracies. As a dynamic approach it useful for short-term strategies such as route guidance and traffic management.

Kalman filtering is a two-step process involving the initial prediction step then followed with an updated filtering stage. During the initial stages, estimates of the current state variables are produced along with their uncertainties. To compare between the outputs of a measurements, a weighted average calculated from covariance allows a determination of uncertainty of the estimates present within the system’s state. This process is constantly repeated and iterated to achieve a better estimate that lies between the predicted and measured state. The iteration is constantly using the previous best estimated state and current measurement, which models the Kalman filtering method as a recursive estimator.

Advantages:

– Kalman filtering is capable of inferring data from uncertain and imprecise data sources. It can filter out unrequired data measurements.

– Kalman filtering is recursive, new measurements are capable of being processed immediately.

Disadvantages:

– It assumes both the observations and system models are both realistic, however in real world situations it is not realistic.

– It assumes noise within the system is Gaussian distributed.

Case Study:

Kalman filtering based dynamic OD matrix estimation and prediction for traffic systems.

Neural network

A neural network is an adaptive connectionists model which estimates optimal outputs through a training process. The objective of the training process is to minimize the deviations between the model outputs and the target values (Yaldi, Taylor and Yue (2011)).

During the first input layer, neurons take data into the network which flows along the connections to be scaled by connection weights which are initially estimated. An internal transfer function usually a logistic function is utilised to compute the outputs from the previous scaled inputs (Yaldi et al.,2011). The output layer represents applying an activation function to transform the estimated output, which is the total addition of the values of all the nodes in the hidden layer.

Advantages:

– Neural networks have the ability to learn themselves and produce the output that is not limited to the input provided to them.

– Since the inputs in neural network are stored within a network not a database, an output is still produced regardless if a neuron is missing or faulty.

– The neural network requires less statistical training and can identify complex relationships between variables

– Since neural network learn through examples during the training process, they can be related to real life events.

– They can perform tasks in parallel without affecting the system performance.

Disadvantages:

– A shortcoming of the neural network is its ‘black box’ nature. This issue is that an approximation derived from the neural network will not provide any insight into the form of the function as if no relationships exist between the network weights and the property being modelled. This sometimes leaves the network unexplained.

– This process is computationally heavy requiring appropriate hardware and is also time consuming.

– The model is susceptible to overfitting. This is a phenomenon in modelling when the approximated function is too closely fitted to a limited set of data points. This causes poor predictive abilities and an inability to incorporate additional data.

Case Study:

A Neural Network model was used to estimate the Origin-Destination (OD) matrix from the link volumes of transportation network.

Bayesian Inferences

Bayesian inferences is a statistical inference method based on Bayes’ rule, which constantly provides updates on the probability on a hypothesis through model structure and prior data. It considers the prior distribution and posterior distribution, which allows probability distribution to be modelled and updated each time with a new observation. Prior distributions represent our beliefs and the distribution of parameters before any data is observed whereas posterior distributions are our beliefs and the distribution of parameters after observing data. In the context of O-D matrices, Bayesian inferences can combine current and past information on OD matrix.

Advantages:

– Progressively provides more precise predictions with informative data

– Any changes to data can be easily implemented, which complies with O-D matrix estimations as traffic flow is random.

– Results are conditional and exact hence there isn’t really difference between a large and small sample size. This is extremely cost efficient as it is expensive to obtain data for a large number of traffic flows on specific set of network links.

Disadvantages:

– If the prior information is incorrect, this can lead inference results as unreliable and misleading

– There is a high computational costs for a large set of parameter.

Part 2: a) Review of Light Rail Transit (LRT) Introduction

Metropolitan regions experiencing rapid urbanization need to emphasize on transit-oriented development (TOD) to prosper social, economic and environmental benefits. Environmental problems continue to be exacerbated consequent of increasing population densities and transportation by-products; focus has been placed to implement cleaner forms of transport infrastructure such as the Light Rail Transit (LRT) system. The LRT system is a popular strategy in integrating public transport networks to ensure better management of traffic congestion, improving accessibility and mobility within high density regions and fostering economic growth. In this literature review, its positive and negative externalities are analysed with a cost-benefit analysis to ensure these projects are economically viable in certain regions.

Impacts of Accessibility, Land use, Gentrification and Property Values

The rationale in developing an LRT system is to foster economic developments within the vicinity by greater land use and accessibility, however the indirect effects of gentrification need to be mitigated. Dziauddin, Alvanides and Power (2013) utilize the concept of accessibility to understand the correlation between transportation and land use. In denser metropolitan regions, an LRT system would significantly promote the spatial interactions between activities and land uses. This would spur economic activity, as evident in Fan, Guthrie and Levinson (2012) reports on the effects of the introduction of the Hiawatha light-rail line on lower wage workers. According to the National Household Transportation Survey, these lower wage household had relatively less car ownership rates when compared to other households. Furthermore, the regression analysis deduced positive benefits for improving accessibility by 30-40% for transit dependent workers and the significant impact of a fully integrated transit network. (Fan et al (2012); Johnson, Ercolani and Mackie (2017)) Improvements in accessibility allowed areas with shorter public transport times to be associated with higher employment levels and economies. Comparatively, a case study undertaken in the Klang Valley region in Malaysia had undergone major economic growth and rapid urbanizations had led to a steady increase of vehicles ownerships and traffic congestion levels as a result (Dziauddin et al (2013)). The implementation of an LRT improved accessibility due to congestion relief and better regional mobility, reduced roadway costs, improved traffic safety and air qualities which will be a focus later in this review. In contrast to a greater interconnectivity within the city region and promotion of land use, several studies have confirmed significant or marginal impacts on gentrification and property values within the vicinity of LRT infrastructure. Gentrification is a controversial topic in urban planning, it is process of changing the character of a neighbourhood when an influx of higher income residents displaces and moves into a low income or working-class community (Kennedy and Leonard (2001)). Increased property values in proximity of LRT stations are indicative of transit-induced gentrification, a by-product of TOD; Cavers and Patterson (2015) and Immergluck (2009) analysed that transit infrastructure planning illustrated positive effects of gentrification and property value from urban transits. However, LRT systems tend to be located within regions amenable for development hence it is ambiguous to assume that the LRT is the sole reason for changes in land usage and values. Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade and Douglas (1998) elucidated that he level of accessibility and land use development are not solely dependent and are effected by many factors, including the current level of accessibility, state of regional economy, the availability of services such as sewer, drainage and water and desirability for land development. In addition, this is manifested in the introduction of the LRT in Manila, there were only marginal impacts on property and land values (Pacheco-Raguz (2010)). This is a result of existing transport infrastructure with good accessibility prior to LRT and the lack of complementary TOD policies. Furthermore, to mitigate the dilemma of gentrification, transport planners must consider the rising costs of living for existing residents within the community by providing affordable housing options and financial aid. This was manifested in the Metro TOD Program in Portland, investments with the aid from local governments were made to provide affordable housing development for moderate- and lower-income households living near the LRT regions. Urban planners must consider effects on surrounding areas when implementing an LRT system, however by improving the level off accessibility with densely populated regions economic development is fostered.

Cost-benefit analysis, Project Implementation and the state of economy

The implementation of large-scale infrastructure projects requires extensive planning and a cost benefit analysis to determine if its economically feasible. TOD’s including the introduction of an LRT system would provide a framework for future populations and employment growth and alleviate problems that arise from urbanization; environmental sustainability, traffic congestion and overcrowding. As an infrastructure innovation, the implementation of the LRT systems is susceptible in incurring costs overbudget due to unpredicted and delays mainly affecting their capital expenditure (CAPEX). This was the case for the current construction of Sydney’s CBD and South East Light Rail network, which was initially budgeted at $1.6 billions and a final estimation of the project exceeded $3 billion due to mispricing and omissions in the business case. Initially, a benefit cost ratio (BCR) of 0.8 was determined, indicating that the costs of construction and operations exceeded the revenue required for this project. However, the BCR was recalculated and an economic appraisal was made where the LRT in Sydney was forecasted to provide $4 billion in total economic benefits. This calculated a BCR of 2.4 during the initial budget of $1.6 billion. Prolonged delays, misconduct and legal processes reduced the BCR to 1.4, however it the project continued as benefits were still provide as the BCR were greater than 1.0. Moreover, to avoid major delays within projects these considerations must be achieved for a large-scale project to be implemented, this is illustrated in the table below. The LRT project development involves four major steps (IUT, (2013));

Major steps in LRT Project

Implementation

Course of Action

Transaction Structuring

It involves the selection of the Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)

partner to perform deliveries and services related to the

implementation of the project.

Final location survey and layout drawings

Solving with nearby city agencies and the planning of the layout and location of the project

Choice of mode/technology

The technology used are considered, this is also dependent

on the context of the cities needs and state of economy.

Design of Civil Engineering structures

This step involves the design and modelling of technical aspects

Including the station, routes, etc.

Major steps in the Implementation of LRT

During the initial stages of project development, feasibility reports in the ‘Transaction structuring’ step are undertaken including a cost-benefit analysis to ensure if the project is necessary, beneficial and financially adequate. To finance for large scale infrastructure plans such as the LRT systems, Public Private Partnerships (PPP) are vital in development, as the government pays the private sector to perform and deliver the services required for the infrastructure. These payments are usually sourced from the public sector in the form of tax revenues.

The overall budget for LRT’s system is mainly contributed to its CAPEX, however its operating expenditure (OPEX) when compared to other modes of transport is relatively low as it is energy efficient and capable of carrying many passengers for a given trip. Reiterating, that the cost performance of LRT systems are susceptible in incurring further costs in CAPEX, discredits the innovation of large infrastructure project with regards to the justification and adoption of LRT (Love, Ahiage-Dagbui, Welde and ODeck (2017)). Illustrated in Table, mean overbudget of 42% were experienced by LRT projects in US cities from 1988 to 2013. Furthermore, they also mentioned on future proofing which would improve the cost effectiveness of the LRT by mitigating strategic misrepresentation and optimism bias. Many governments and companies are working to increase the capital efficiency of infrastructure procurements, by maximizing the productivity of assets and minimizing the costs associated with infrastructures (EIU (2014)). However, the CAPEX and OPEX costs are high to maintain, the LRT system provides many benefits that usually exceeds the costs in the long run. It is capable of stimulating investment by revitalizing commercial and residential development, grater productivity due to better mobility within the CBD and many other social and environmental benefits. However, the economic viability of the cost-benefit analysis also dependent on the locational contexts and the opportunity cost of spending capital on other sources or different modes of transport including the BRT. The cost per kilometre(km) for LRT varies significantly depending on the location of cities and countries, evident in the table below.

Location

Cost of LRT per kilometre(km)

Canberra

$58-$70m

Gold Coast

$18-$22m

Sydney

$15m

Manchester (UK)

$24m

LRT comparisons with bus rapid transit (BRT)

An alternative to an LRT system in tackling traffic congestion and improving transport capacity is the bus rapid transit (BRT).

Comparison

BRT and LRT

Operating Costs

LRT systems are more cost effective and have lower operating and

maintenance costs compared to the BRT as they are more durable.

Operating costs for LRT systems per user are approximately 16%

less than BRT’s due to its ability to transport a large capacity of

passengers per trip. Hence, LRTs require less subsidies in the long time

due to its higher influx of passengers.

Environmental

Sustainability

Reduction in carbon emissions and improvements in air quality

especially in the regions around the CBD can be significantly reduced e if the source of LRTs electricity is derived from renewable resources.

In the case of BRTs, most buses are diesel-fuelled which contributes

to carbon footprint and greenhouse gases.

According to Transport for NSW, LRT systems use 10 times less

energy than BRTs for the same travel distance and the system is

expected to reduce carbon footprint by 663,000 tons over the next

3 years.

However, a rollout of electric buses which utilize renewable resources

would have similar impacts to the environment as the LRT. But a

downfall is that buses contribute and exacerbate congestion on roads

which indirectly affects emission from other surrounding vehicles.

CAPEX

BRT systems are typically 4 to 20 times less than an equivalent LRT

system. The capital costs per mile of BRT systems are substantially

lower than LRT systems as in the figure!!. Since the construction

of its infrastructure is much simpler and easier to integrate with the

transport network.

Public disruptions

(noise, vibrations)

Both transit systems are culprits of noise pollution and vibrations,

policies have been implemented to minimize vibrational annoyance to

a certain limit. These disturbances are present during the vehicle

functioning and especially during the construction phases.

Sourced from the U.S Federal Transit Administration Figure !!,

depicts LRTs are more disruptive in terms of vibration when

compared to BRTs at any corresponding speed.

Accessibility and

Flexibility

BRTs can provide service over a larger geographical area. BRT routes

and station stops are much more flexible and adequate compared to

LRT which is designated on a fixed route. Also, it would be costly to

further trackwork and stations at the construction of the LRT.

Transportation

LRTs usually operate at higher speeds and offer greater passenger

capacity compared to BRTs. Buses are more likely to be subjected to

traffic congestion and are required to be constantly changing speeds at

stops and intersections than LRTs. In Australia, LRTs on average

travel at 35km/h compared to BRTs at 30km/h. Furthermore, LRTs

have higher ridership and passenger capacity per vehicle than BRTs.

The main advantage of BRT systems is its flexibility and accessibility which makes it preferable for smaller-medium sized cities. In contrast, LRT systems yield greater capacity of passengers and alleviate traffic congestion allowing it to be more suitable for larger and denser cities.

Reliability, user satisfaction, service quality, emissions, health and noise.

Reliability is a measure of punctuality and the maintenance of proper function, these issues are prevalent and can be categorised as operational, planning and technical. These instances arise from schedule development, malfunctions, bad weather and accidents. Furthermore, factors of unreliability usually occur within the CBD due to pedestrian movements, several signalized intersections and higher dwell times as a result of higher demands (Sirisoma, Wirasinghe (2008)). The LRT is usually perceived as a reliable mode of transport due to its frequency, accessibility and less susceptibility to delays due to its designated and fixed routes. Moreover, LRTs are attractive hallmarks of a strong economy that can foster economic development and providing benefits for citizens including better ridership experiences and reduced carbon footprint. In addition, improvements or modification on existing infrastructure are relatively low costs for LRTs as operating expenses are usually within the budget of the public sector. When properly implemented, with the correct placement of stations and routes, better interconnectivity within city regions would substantially provide region development of rising property values and de-densify road networks to encourage transit use. Another incentive to implement LRT systems is to strategize environmental sustainability and urban renewal, a core desire of developed cities. There is a direct correlation of the impacts of public transport and transit-oriented development to the social, economic and environmental aspects of cities (Cervero 2005). Ultimately, as a locomotive based on electricity would improve air quality within the epicentre of cities and influence transit use by removing cars of the road. Several studies have illustrated the burden on health of car pollutants, in addition the reduced travel time promotes physical activity and lessens the effectiveness of seating. These results are emphasized if the electricity sourced for the LRT is entirely sourced from renewable resources such as wind, solar and hydroelectricity. Evident within a study, Macdonald, Stokes. Choen. Kofner and Ridgeway (2010) investigated the effects of LRT facilitating physical activity and changes in BMI. Consequently, LRT users commuting to work were 81% less likely to become obese over time, the results depicted the publics use of LRT could lead to health improvements for millions of individuals. Several studies have illustrated positive relationships between LRT systems and reducing regional carbon and greenhouse gas emissions. (Andrade and D’Agosto (2015)) forecasted forgone emission subsequent of the Rio de Janeiro Metro line 4 from 2016-2040 as shown in figure !!!. Furthermore, calculations of avoided emissions were calculated in major cities as results of Metro or Light Rail line implementation.

Acceptability, Noise and Safety

The implementation of LRT systems causes social impacts that may conflict with individuals. Safety is a major concern; certain LRT systems are incorporated into existing road with traffic where pedestrians are exposed to unprotected rails. (Currie and Reynolds (2010)) demonstrated methods in improving pedestrian safety within the surroundings of light rails which include; improving pedestrian awareness of crossings and approaching trains, informative educational programs about hazards and greater sight distance of approaching vehicles. Furthermore, analysis displayed that after new stops were implemented with a safety audit approach, light rail and pedestrian incidents declined by 10% per annum. In addition, the negative externalities that arise from the LRT system include the noise that is generated during construction and operation and its general acceptability especially by non-users. Vogiatzis and Vanhonacker (2016) investigated track-based solutions and the source of noise to mitigate the railway rolling noise, results related to applying noise absorbent barriers and installing rail dampers. During the development of the LRT, many indirect implications that impact surrounding residents and commuters due to road and pathway blockages, noise and vibration pollution and irritating sight. Reiterating, LRT systems are susceptible to prolonged delays and disruptions which exacerbate the negatives of construction, traffic congestion and increased density of pedestrians are more prevalent due to reduced pathways and detours. However, people are usually acceptable of the implementation of LRTs as they would provide further benefits in the long run.

(Ercolani, 2017)

(Ercolani, 2017)

b) Bibliometric analysis

Bibliometric analysis is a statistical method in quantitively analysing the academic quality of publications.

A bibliometric analysis was performed on the Light Rail Transit to highlight its evolution of research, indicate which countries are taking the most interest in this field and important topic within this research area. In recent years, there has been an 2-12% increase in article publication from the past decade. This signifies a growing interest and research on light rail transit systems, consequent of implementing cleaner and more effective transportation methods to mitigate the negative effects of globalisation. USA has shown greatest interest in this field at 54% of all publications, as the strongest economy in the world USA has steady resources to supply for large infrastructure project such as the LRT system. The Top 5 countries in record count contribute to approximately 75% of all publications; All of these countries are either developed or have a high population density such as the Peoples Republic of China, urbanization is a common factor and incentives to integrate an LRT system would alleviate overcrowding and reduce vehicle usage.. Furthermore, LRT system are a hallmark of a developed economy state that can contribute in fostering economic development, aiding traffic congestion and improving environmental sustainability. Moreover, Environmental sustainability has become a focal point especially in developing countries to reduce carbon footprint and greenhouse gases. In addition, these developed countries want to provide a future framework for their cities by improving accessibility and travel time. In Figure, the bibliometric analysis represents important topics in the LRT research which consist of benefits, environment, accessibility and development.

Mackie, E. a., 2017. Econometric analysis of the link between public transport accessibility and employment.

References

(Ercolani, 2017)

Ercolani and Mackie (2017))

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320766925_Econometric_analysis_of_the_link_between_public_transport_accessibility_and_employment

Immergluck (2009)

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042098009105500

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0042098014524287?journalCode=usja

Currie and Reynolds (2010))

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254609495_Vehicle_and_Pedestrian_Safety_at_Light_Rail_Stops_in_Mixed_Traffic

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26028336

Appendices

Efficiency in Intermodal Transportation

Introduction

The Intermodal transportation is the efficient method to transport freight containers from one point to the other. However, the intermodal transportation system is experiencing inefficiencies and delays. For instance, the shortage of personnel in the industry makes it difficult for supplies to reach on time; the laborers are exhausted resulting in accidents and quitting. Additionally, many trucks are needed for a trip and the drivers are usually faced with the problem of traffic jams during rush hours. Sometimes products get lost at the time of delivery and technology is not in a position of tracing the products. As the population increases so as the requirement for larger and better transportation; this impacts ports infrastructure and prompts city to construct more and better gateway to enhance demands of importation and exportation.

The efficiency of Intermodal Transportation in the Supply Chain Management Industry

The Supply Chain Management (SCM) industry involves the transportation and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and of finished products from the source point to the point of consumption. Therefore, the supply chain management entails the management of the movement of goods and services. The intermodal transportation system can be more efficient in the supply chain management industry as it aids in the movement of goods and services from one destination to the other through integration of air, road, sea and railway modes of transport. The Intermodal transportation system can be more efficient and provide better support to the supply chain management industry as explicitly discussed in the subsequent paragraphs.

The construction of the good road transport networks that limits the chances of traffic jams is efficient to support the operations of the supply chain management industries. Road transport involves the transportation of small batches of products or containers from one destination to another by road (Lu

Lean Manufacturing in Industry 4.0

Abstract

Industry 4.0 is one of the hotly discussed and searched topics of present day in manufacturing industries and at the same time lean manufacturing is broadly used and considered as an effective tool to improve the operational efficiency and reducing the cost by identifying the non-value added activities in all the processes in an organization. But then, implementing lean in an organization for complex operations faced some hurdles. With technology evolution, the modern world is driven by data and internet of things. With the objective of supporting the organizations to overcome the challenges and hurdles, Industry 4.0 provides new methodologies for managing complex problems and to improve the operational efficiency. Industry 4.0 helps to merge the physical with the digital world and creates an opportunity in making smart factories. Also, examines the link between Industry 4.0 and lean principles and explores whether Industry 4.0 is fit for executing the lean principles. And, demonstrates the theory that Industry 4.0 is undoubtedly fit for implementation of lean manufacturing.

Lean Manufacturing in Industry 4.0

Lean concerns a production system that is oriented on learning of organization through continuous improvement (Mrugalska

To truly come to an understanding of the question we need to define what a zoo is and what ethical means. Lexico.com defines a zoo as “an establishment which maintains a collection of wild animals, typically in a park or gardens, for study, conservation or display to the public.” This definition opens up to debate whether zoos are ethical or not, due to the term “display to the public”. This part of the definition does this as, if the zoos are only doing this for their personal gain, then are zoos truly righteous and ethical for exploiting animals in this way? Next is the term “ethical” Lexico.com defines ethical as “morally good or correct”. This is open to interpretation as different people can have a different viewpoint on ethics. This can be due to religion, circumstances and upbringing. So, in this essay, I will be discussing whether I think zoos are ethical and what can be done to fix these issues.

I have always enjoyed the zoos that I have visited e.g Colchester Zoo and London Zoo. I used to always think that zoos are amazing because of how they educate children and how healthy and happy the animals looked. When, however, I researched some zoos in other parts of the world, e.g. Asia, I was horrified about the living conditions of some of the animals. The rules and regulations in this part of the world are extremely lenient or non existent. So, I will be looking into zoos in different countries to help me answer this question of are zoos ethical?

On the “for” side of this argument, Dr. Robin Ganzert, (the president and CEO of American Humane, the country’s oldest national humane organization. which works to protect animals and children from abuse and harm) wrote in an article for TIME, “The Arabian Oryx has been removed from the endangered species list.” This has been due to breeding programmes in zoos. The conservation of animals is an important part of zoos. She also writes, “Even when animals aren’t introduced back into the wild, placing them under human care can still improve the lives of their wild counterparts: modern zoos and aquariums serve as bases for observation and research.” I think this is a very valid point. We can discover things to help animals in the wild e.g. medicines and characteristics. So even if we can’t release the animals into the wild the research we can do and therefore the information we learn and help we can get from them is vital towards our understanding of the different species.

I read an article in THE TIMES, Saturday October 19 2019. It read that “two cubs born at Berlin Zoo in August …. first pandas to be born in Germany.” This indicates how important animals are and the global conservation of animals is a top priority. Even China is willing to give their national animal, a panda, to another country for promotion and conservation purposes and to keep the species off the endangered species list. This shows that zoos can be ethical and that the animals are the number one priority instead of the country’s pride or any selfishness. Adding onto this THE TIMES also had an article titled “Zoo welcomes baby rhino into the world.” “A rare southern white rhino has been born in a Belgium zoo.” This is in response to the battle between zoos and poachers. It also states in the article that “there are 18,000 southern white rhinos in the wild but poachers kill one every eight hours’ ‘. This is an example of zoos being ethical as they are fight to safeguard a species against the murder of innocent animals through breeding programmes.

On Saturday 19th October there was a short article in The Times entitled “Zoo opens window on mysteries of “le Blob” detailing how a Paris Zoo is displaying a “yellow, single-cell slime mould that can display intelligent behaviours, such as finding its way out of a labyrinth ……. And can heal itself after being cut in two”. This is very positive for zoos as they are shedding a light on other forms of animal life.

Michael Hutchings, PhD, director and William Conway Chair of the Department of Conservation and Science for the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, argues whether “the benefits of zoos to society outways the cost to individual animal welfare”. I agree with this principle as zoos contribute greatly to our society, as you learn about animals in a proactive environment. Children love going to the zoo and seeing the animals, feeding the animals and learning about them. It is vital that we are taught about our world and how to respect it. I believe that in order to consider if zoos are ethical or not we also have to see whether “the benefits of zoos to society is greater than the cost to individual animal welfare.”

Dr Hutchins, says “we need to know about the biology of animals to conserve.” This is vital as we need zoos for research as well as education so that we can find out more about the animals eg. “the biology of animals”. This can help us in so many different ways. For example, we can develop new ideas for medicines and nutritional diets to improve the lives of the animals in captivity and also their wild counterparts.

On the “against” side of the argument, I consulted the PETA UK website to see what they say about zoos. PETA is a UK-based charity dedicated to establishing and protecting the rights of all animals. They call zoos an “unnatural prison”. They mention how animals have miles and miles of space in the wild and that it is not natural to keep them in small enclosures, which cause mental issues with the animals eg “zoochosis, abnormal and self destructive behaviour.” They also say, “sometimes the zookeepers give animals antidepressants to hide their distress.” This certainly doesn’t sound like it fits the definition of ethical. The part that I’m most interested in is what they call “Conservation Con”. Conservation is one of the significant roles of zoos that I agree with and why I think zoos are ethical. According to PETA UK “animals that are bred in captivity are not prepared to cope in the wild”. This means that the conservation is not really working, as a key element of conservation is to breed the animals and then release them in the wild. Animals have certain natural instincts that they need to survive in the wild. If several generations of the same animal family have been in captivity then they lose the natural instincts that are vital for survival in the wild. In captivity the animals have food given to them so they have no need to hunt and the lack of predators means that, if released into the wild, they will be in severe shock and ill prepared to cope.

According to various websites, zoos in China are flourishing due to a booming domestic tourism market. The zoos there are not regulated by the Government and are not being held up to the correct standards due to this. One example of this is that there are photos of a zoo in China pushing a live donkey into the big cats enclosure. This certainly does not fit the term ethical which we defined. The enclosures are incredibly cramped and filled with rubbish. They are certainly not up to standard. So, looking at some of the examples of zoos in China I believe that these zoos are definitely not ethical. So even though these zoos are extremely popular the morality of what these zoos are or how they treat their animals is definitely not right.

In a book I used for research called “Zoos and Animal Rights” by Stephen St C. Bostock, on page 132 under the subheading of, “an animals relationship to its environment”, they write “Animals have a close relationship with their environments.” This is also summed up as if a zoo can’t replicate an animal’s habitat well enough then that animal will behave differently to how it would in its natural environment in the wild and that is probably not beneficial for the animal.

He says on page 72, “All animals are adapted to their natural habitats. From this we might presume: (a) that they are well off there.” The fact that they are well off in their natural habitat adds to the fact that they should be living in those habitats (the wild) rather than in enclosures in zoos that may bear little to no resemblance to their natural habitat. I still think most of this is up to circumstances. If the zoo has tried to make the enclosures spacious and as close to the wild as possible then I think it is acceptable, but, if the enclosures bear no resemblance to the animals’ natural habitat, then I believe that these zoos should be shut down.

Dr Dave Hone (Senior Lecturer and Director of Biological Sciences Programme at Queen Mary University, London), wrote two excellent points in the Guardian newspaper that I think perfectly illustrate the challenges, he wrote “But just as the fact that some police are corrupt does not mean we should not have people to enforce the law, although bad zoos or exhibits persist does not mean they are not worthwhile institutes.” This is an excellent comparison . The police force is a vital part of society to keep everyone in check and enforce the law, but there are corrupt police officers, yet if we remove all police due to this we will be doing more harm than good. So, even though there are some bad zoos that does not make the good ones any less amazing or helpful towards animal welfare and society as a whole.

He also says that “they have to keep the public onside or go bust and they have to stand up to rigorous inspections or be closed down.” I think this works in two different ways. In the case of really good and popular zoos, in regulated countries, more people visit them and with the money from entrance fees, annual memberships, catering and retail, they can improve the enclosures and the lives of the animals in their care.

From researching zoos in different countries I believe that government regulation to be one of the key factors in zoos being ethical. New Zealand has one of the strictest set of regulations with frequent inspections and harsh penalties for breaking the rules. The UK, Australia and the USA also have strict rules and have rigorous inspections and if they do not fulfill the criteria then the zoo will be shut down. There are little or no rules or regulations in many Asian countries and this means that the zoos tend to be more commercial and profit driven rather than caring for the animals. Whereas, in unregulated countries like China, there may be examples of zoos that are popular for the “wrong” reasons. The zoos I am referring to have entertainment (animals performing shows) as their primary focus rather than animal welfare and they may be popular attractions because of this and therefore are getting lots of money, however, they are not investing this in the animal enclosures or conditions. Instead the owner of the zoos have commercial gain as their main objective.

In conclusion, I believe, just like Michael Hutchins wrote, “if the benefits of zoos to society outway the cost of individual animal welfare.” I believe that the two key elements are conservation and animal welfare. If this happens then I think the zoos are ethical. From what I have seen though more zoos in Asia, that have extremely lenient rules, are not ethical. They are there to entertain the visitors and some of the animals are malnourished and close to death. Whereas zoos with stricter rules and regulations tend to be more ethical as they have to stick to guidelines that protect the animals so they can live good lives. I have had to take into account many things, some people say that zoos are unethical due to the fact that the animals cannot be released back into the wild, I agree with this statement but the priority has to be conservation. I believe that if zoos have a strong conservation programme then that makes them ethical as they are protecting a species of animals that are endangered and keeping them from the brink of extinction. It all depends on the circumstances as to whether an individual zoo is ethical or not, just like Dr Dave Hone wrote regarding the police.

Bibliography

Animals in Zoos: condemned to live a life behind bars, PETA website.

Animal Liberation, book, Peter Singer.

Animal welfare assessments, Wild Welfare website.

Are zoos ethical?, By Pooja N. 25th may, 2017, website.

China’s terrible zoos and why they’re still thriving,Mandy Zuo, published 9:30 am, 1st July 2017. Updated 11:31 pm, 1st July 2017.

endangered and extinct species, Book

TheTimes, newspaper article, Sunday October 19 2019

TheTimes, Thursday December 26 2019, newspaper

TheTimes, Thursday January 30 2020, newspaper

Why zoos are good, The Guardian website, Dr Dave Hone, Tuesday 19 August 2014 11.57 BST. last modified on Tuesday 9 May 2017 18:37 BST.

Zoos and animal rights the ethics of keeping animals, Book

Zoo and aquarium manual, Michael Hutchins, Journal, 18 december 2007

Zoos are not prisons they improve the lives of animals, Dr. Debora Lichtenberg VMD, website, May 16 2018.

Zoos are not prisons they improve the lives of animals, Dr. Robin Ganzert, TIME website, June 13, 2016.

Zoos code of welfare, Newzealand government website, October 1 2018.

Zoo def of zoo, Lexico.com Oxford website, 2020.

Animals in entertainment and circuses

Throughout history, animals have been used for many purposes, including entertainment. However, it was not until the 1700s when animals began to become a main part of the acts, and by the late 1870s, exotic animals were being showcased regularly with Barnum and Coup ‘using as many as 20 elephants in a circus tent’.[1]

Mabel Stark was a renowned tiger trainer of the 1920s. She was one of the world’s first tiger women trainers. She ended up travelling with the AI G. Barnes Circus in 1911, and worked as a “high school” rider but she really wanted to work with big cats. One of her first acts included her riding a lion on a platform, then pressing a pedal that set off fireworks. On February 18, 1916, Stark was mauled by a lion whilst rehearsing for the Pacific Electric exhibit of the National Orange show in San Bernardino, California. The lion went on to roll over multiple times with Stark’s arm in its mouth, following blank shots at his face by her husband. Stark was rushed to hospital, unconscious, where she was treated for a broken arm. However, this was not her first mauling incident, she had previously been attacked by her leopards during a parade in 1915, and she was mangled in California.

Despite all these incidents, she still continued to work with big cats and people continued to use various exotic animals in entertainment. On most occasions, the animals in these incidents are blamed for what has happened, and most people do not stop to think what triggered the violent behaviour, or whether the person involved had anything to do with the outburst. Considering this, is it really fair to say that these animals are being treated with respect and all people’s actions are ethical?

When I was younger, I often went to the circus with my dad and sister. One of my fondest memories was when we saw the horses trotting round, covered in feathers and dancing around the ring. As I’ve grown up, I have thought about this day more and more. Although I’m sure the horses were not mistreated, it did make me wonder how they were taught these incredible tricks and whether it was wilful or not. Many circuses use horses in circuses and expect them to perform tricks standing on their hind legs and walking backwards, which is completely against their nature. They only reason a horse would perform any tricks like this, is by fear or pain[2].

Although some circuses mistreat and abuse animals (whilst deceiving the public with fake smiles and hidden hooks), not all circuses are bad. For example, Cirque du Soleil is an animal-free-circus, and yet still is one of the biggest circus acts in the whole world. This shows that the use of animals is not compulsory for success and is an inspiration for other circuses to follow suit. Then again, it is possible for the circuses to treat these animals with respect and integrity, providing a counter argument that there can be ethical treatment, and the answer is not so black and white.

Advances in laws against the mistreatment of animals

Many countries are making advances on the ban of all animals in circuses, but some have not made any advances, e.g. France. However, in other countries there has been a ‘Nationwide ban on all animals in circuses: Cyprus, Greece, Malta and Bolivia’. In 2012, in the UK, the government pledged to ‘ban the use of wild animals in circuses’ but this still has not happened because of the bills being blocked by individual Conservative MPs [3]. Although the bills keep being blocked, the government has pledged that the use of wild animals in travelling circuses will be banned from 2020 (following many long-running campaigns by animal welfare advocates). Also, similar bans have been passed in Ireland, Scotland and are under discussion in Wales[4].

As part of my answer to this question, I wanted to include some religious views and see if that affected anything. I found that for most of history, Christians believed that human beings could treat animals however they wished because they had few moral obligations towards animals. As they believed that humans were superior to animals. However, ‘modern Christians generally take a much more pro-animal line’. They now think that any unnecessary mistreatment of animals is morally wrong and seen as a sin[5]. Whereas Muslims believe that all living creatures were made by Allah, and that Allah loves all animals, therefore meaning they must be treated with kindness and compassion. Muslim’s are instructed to avoid treating animals cruelly, overworking/ overloading them, neglecting them etc[6]. Although this is not directly related to animals being used for entertainment purposes (specifically in circuses), it does tell us that different religions have different views on animal welfare and where they stand in comparison to humans.

Blackfish

As a part of my research, I watched a documentary called Blackfish. It is about the treatment of killer whales in captivity, and more specifically SeaWorld. I was shocked at the amount of mistreatment these defenseless animals endure and the lack of ethics that some of these people have. Killer whales are giant, beautiful, intelligent animals, who are very family orientated. A trainer from SeaWorld said that “When you look into their eyes, you know somebody is home. You form a very personal relationship with your animal”. Although there is no denying that the trainers share a bond with the mammals, there is also no denying that they are wild animals that can exhibit violent behaviour. Even though there have been no reported incidents of orcas attacking humans in the wild, there have been 70 cases in captivity.

One of the most famous cases was that of Dawn Brancheau. 39 years before the attack, the baby orcas were stolen from their families and taken into captivity. In 1983, a male killer whale was captured in the north atlantic. At 2 years of age, he was already 11.5 feet long, and by four, he was up to 16 feet and weighed 4,000 pounds. They named him Tilikum. Originally he was kept at Sealand in Canada, and in 1991, there was an incident, in which a trainer, Keltie Byrne, fell and was dragged into the enclosure, where she was repeatedly pulled under water and as a result drowned. Tilikum was sold to SeaWorld and continued his career there, whilst completely ignoring his past. Tilikum grew to be 12,000 pounds, and as a result of his enormous size, was a victim of aggression from the other females in his enclosure. His wounds were visible, but still ignored. Most trainers claimed they stayed because they felt sorry for the whales and feared for them. Dawn Brancheau was one of the senior trainers at SeaWorld and was deemed one of the most experienced. During a show, Tilikum grabbed Dawn’s left forearm and proceeded to do a barrel roll and drag her into the water. Although this behaviour may have started off as being playful, it quickly escalated to violent, aggressive behaviour, and in the end he completely mutilated her. SeaWorld reported that it was trainer error and that Tilikum grabbed a hold of Dawn’s long ponytail, which should have been tied back.

SeaWorld have blatantly lied and fabricated the truth on many occasions, and this is all to protect their image. Beside all the evidence supporting the case that these whales are tortured and mistreated, they are still kept in captivity and used daily in shows. Many former trainers agree that there is nothing ethical with keeping wild animals trapped in a concrete pool. On May 30, 2012, judge Ken Welsch issued a ruling on OSHA vs. SeaWorld. During shows, SeaWorld trainers must now remain behind barriers, separated from the orcas.

SeaWorld is a multi-billion dollar industry that continues to grow despite all the petitions and fatal cases that have happened. This proves that money can truly silence anything and anyone. If SeaWorld were truly ethical and proud of how they treat their animals, they would have no fear in answering many questions they have completely ignored. Tilikum has been used to mate with multiple female orcas, meaning that there are dozens of offspring with Tilikum’s DNA in, which has proven to be unpredictable and unsafe. If industries continue to ignore the fact that these are wild animals that have natural instincts, then fatal, heartbreaking cases like Dawn’s will continue to happen.

My thoughts on future improvements that should be made

As I mentioned earlier in my essay, some improvements have already been made in certain parts of the world, including the UK. Petitions, laws and bans all help improve the welfare of animals and ensure that the horrific trauma they endure, comes to an end. Most elephants used by circuses are captured in the wild and removed from their families and beautiful natural habitat, only to be forced into a life full of chains, whips and intimidation. Baby elephants born in breeding farms are torn from their mothers and isolated with their only contact being their trainer, who’s job is to terrify and ‘break’ the infants, ready to be used for our entertainment[7].

The Five Freedoms outline five aspects of animal welfare under human control:

Freedom from hunger or thirst – ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health

Freedom from discomfort – providing an appropriate environment with shelter and a comfortable resting area

Freedom from pain, injury or disease – prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment

Freedom to express (most) normal behaviour – providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animals’ own kind

Freedom from fear and distress – ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering

At the moment, circuses do not follow these ‘Five Freedoms’ closely enough at all, and I think that the government needs to ensure that all of these requirements are met. If it was a human living under these conditions, it would be all over the news and be a top priority, yet for our entertainment there are thousands of animals living under physical and mental suffering.

I am in no way saying that all circuses should be shut down and that they should all be banned, because I understand that it is still a job for many people and many members of the public enjoy it for a family day out. However, I do not understand why this must involve cruel acts of suppression and torture to beautiful creatures that should be allowed to roam free in the wild. In order for circuses to be more ethical and ensure better treatment for the animals, there should be very specific and strict laws that they must follow and I hope that other countries follow the Nationwide ban and also ban all animals in circuses.

Personal opinion on animals in circuses and their treatment

When I originally began thinking about this topic and how I wanted to answer it, many ideas came to mind. I knew I wanted to include a bit about the history of animals in entertainment, and incorporate any improvements to different countries in comparison to the UK. Whilst researching, I found out many interesting yet worrying things. For example, there are more than 500,000 animals suffering worldwide for the sake of entertainment[8]. This made me even more passionate about my topic and encouraged me to conduct further research. Whilst completing this project, my opinion has not changed massively from my original judgement, but it has been shaped and challenged by different (and sometimes contradicting) findings.

One of my main sources was PETA, and they say that ‘circuses portray a distorted view of wildlife’, and I couldn’t agree more. The animals live in confined and cramped spaces and endure violent training, involving fear, pain and domination. It is awful to think that the standard practice is to ‘beat, shock and whip them’ to force them to perform tricks that go against their natural instincts[9]. It is heart-breaking to think that the Kings of the wild, powerful animals like lions and tigers have their spirit broken and are forced to do unnatural tricks against their own will. The harsh training methods cause the animals to be terrified of their trainers, who are most often the ringmaster with a whip.

Conclusion

In order to make a valid conclusion, I wanted to address all the points necessary, including a for and against argument. Although my argument was heavily for the idea that circuses are unethical in their treatment of animals, that does not necessarily mean that it will always be the same or that everywhere is the same. After doing my research, I have come to understand that many trainers in the industry stay in their jobs in order to look after the animals as they fear what would happen to them if they did not. For example, SeaWorld trainers form a special bond with their animals and struggle when they are mistreated or treated like a museum attraction. So, in conclusion, I have decided that circuses are unethical in their treatment with animals, as well as many other acts in the entertainment industry. However it is not a complete yes or no question, as it requires further investigation into the factors of the case.

[1] “Why Circuses That Use Domestic Animals are Still Abusive ….” 21 Apr. 2015, https://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/why-circuses-that-use-domestic-animals-are-still-abusive-attractions/. Accessed 8 Mar. 2020.

[2] “Why Circuses That Use Domestic Animals are Still Abusive ….” 21 Apr. 2015, https://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/why-circuses-that-use-domestic-animals-are-still-abusive-attractions/. Accessed 8 Mar. 2020.

[3] “ban on the use of wild animals in circuses – One Green Planet.” https://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/banning-wild-animals-in-circuses/. Accessed 8 Mar. 2020.

[4] “Wild animals to be banned from circuses in England by 2020 ….” 27 Feb. 2018, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/wild-animals-circus-ban-england-2020-defra-government-a8230691.html. Accessed 8 Mar. 2020.

[5] “Religions – Christianity: Animal rights – BBC.” 3 Aug. 2009, https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/christianethics/animals_1.shtml. Accessed 8 Mar. 2020.

[6] “Religions – Islam: Animals – BBC.” 13 Aug. 2009, https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/animals_1.shtml. Accessed 8 Mar. 2020.

[7] “Quick Facts | PETA.” https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/circuses/circus-resources/quick-facts/. Accessed 8 Mar. 2020.

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Traffic congestion remains a significant problem within Aberdeen and in the wider sphere, which results in massive delays, fuel wastage and pollution. The transport issue, which will be confronted within this essay, is congestion, and subsequently pollution, which is a by-product of high volumes of traffic.

Congestion occurs when the amount of traffic exceeds the design capacity, so when the infrastructure is no longer sufficient for the volume of traffic. The type of congestion that Aberdeen experiences is described as recurrent congestion, which occurs at the same time in a particular area typically first or last thing during the working day (Grant-Muller and Laird, 2006, p.19). Throughout this essay both Aberdeen city and the shire will be incorporated in order to assess the issues of congestion and pollution and to suggest measures that can be taken in order to address them. It is necessary to discuss strategies on both as they are directly interlinked and strategies to improve one, subsequently improves the other. It was reported in 2017 that the annual levels of Nitrogen Dioxide across Aberdeen continue to exceed the national air quality objective (Aberdeencity.gov.uk, 2018). This supports the assertion that there is a real need to address the issue. The city experiences high volumes of freight traffic due to its coastal location and the oil industry in the North Sea. Policies and strategies such as the Aberdeen Masterplan and the Nestrans Regional Transport Strategy will be drawn upon to determine how these issues are being dealt with. I will analyse some of the efforts being undertaken or proposed to reduce congestion and consider what impact these have on pollution, this will be backed up with wider research. The foundation of the essay will be based on what has been done already and what else can be done to further improve the situation.

It is evident that the issues of high congestion rates are related to the high rate of car ownership within the City and the Shire. Aberdeenshire has the highest rate of car ownership in Scotland with around 85% of households having access to at least one car (Guild, 2014, p.4). Cars are particularly vital for people living in rural Aberdeenshire. Schemes to try and improve park and ride sites and access to rail links are being discussed to try and reduce car use within the region (Transport Geography Debate, 2019), therefore easing congestion and pollution within the city. Furthermore, the city itself has the highest number of cars per household out of all of the principle cities in Scotland, with only 31% of households not having access to a car (Guild, 2014, p.4). The cities infrastructure is unable to accommodate such high volumes of traffic, not only from the city and commuters but also from freight traffic.

A way in which congestion within the North East is being tackled is through the creation of the Aberdeen Western Peripheral Road (referred to as AWPR hereafter). It fully opened in February 2019 and has provided substantial benefits across Aberdeen since. The AWPR is a 58.3km bypass from North to South Aberdeen, which aims to ease congestion and emissions within the city centre (Transport.gov.scot, 2006). By diverting traffic away from the city to the AWPR there will be a reduction in city centre congestion and therefore emissions due to less stand still congestion (Zhang and Battermanb, 2014). In addition, the road cuts journeys times in half as around 50% of traffic has moved away from the city area onto the AWPR (Transport Scotland, 2019), which has opened up road space in the city for active travel. Aberdeen is particularly suitable for active travel due to it being relatively compact and significant efforts have been made to improve cycling and walking zones.

The AWPR has assisted in moving the volume of traffic, particularly freight vehicles, around the periphery of the city. Previously the volume of freight traffic through the city accounted for a large proportion of vehicles on Aberdeen’s roads. Nestrans found that freight flows typically occur first thing in the morning around 9am, which is typically the time of peak congestion within the city (Nestrans.org.uk, 2011, p.2). The development of the peripheral road has allowed the freight vehicles to bypass the centre greatly reducing congestion and pollution within the city. In conjunction with the development of the AWPR, the Nestrans plan has developed the rail network as an alternative to extracting freight from the cities roads. The plan has increased the accessibility for freight-sized containers to be transported by rail rather than road. New freight friendly rail links have opened at Craiginches, Raiths Farm and Waterloo Quay (Nestrans.org.uk, 2013). This has been instrumental in encouraging the use of rail as an alternative for transporting goods whilst reducing congestion and pollution on the city’s roads.

Park and rides have been proposed as a realistic measure to reduce the number of journeys made and in so doing have a positive impact on congestion and pollution. The scheme works to encourage people to park outside the city boundary during busy commuting times and to take the bus. Aberdeen has park and rides in both the city (Bridge of Don, Craibstone and Kingswells) and the shire (Ellon), which offer upwards of 300 spaces per location (Nestrans.org.uk, 2018). However it has been reported that the Craibstone Park and ride which has a capacity of 996 vehicles, was only being utilised on average by 7 cars a day (McCann, 2019). Careful consideration is needed in order to maximize the benefit of park and rides such as Craibstone. Suggested measures to encourage their use include giving buses more priority on the cities roads to reduce their journey times. If buses are stuck in nose-to-tail traffic it makes them a very unattractive means of travelling, so in order to encourage their use, they need to be given more road priority (Nestrans.org.uk, 2019). In addition, a reduction in city centre parking spaces would encourage increased use of park and rides as it would make it harder to drive to the centre and park easily. This is a measure that should therefore reduce congestion and pollution within the city limits (Nestrans.org.uk, 2012). An example of a city, which has been hailed for its forward thinking transport system, is the Brazilian city of Curitiba. A survey conducted by the Corporación Andina de Fomento (2010) stated that buses and non-motorised trips embody 70% of total trips in the city. This has led to a 25% reduction in congestion highlighting how commuters are favouring public transport over using their car, which is having a positive impact on journey times (Carrier et al., 2014).

Air pollution is a consequence of the high levels of nose-to-tail traffic that Aberdeen experiences. Free flowing traffic generates less pollution, which is why the AWPR will be beneficial in reducing current levels (AWPR | Go North East, n.d.). The AWPR will improve the air quality in the city centre due to less congestion, which will cause emissions to drop between 8 and 10% as follows; carbon monoxide (8%), Hydrocarbons (9%), Nitrogen oxide (10%) and Carbon Dioxide (9%). This reinforces how it’s a causal relationship between congestion and pollution (Comittees.aberdeenshire.gov, 2014). Another initiative, which has been introduced by the city council, is swapping to hydrogen buses. They run on zero emissions fuel and aim to reduce the emissions of the bus fleet overall by 42% by 2020 with Aberdeen having the largest fleet in Europe (Willmann, 2018). Aberdeen’s innovative approach to air pollution and with the AWPR diverting traffic away from the centre, this will free up road space for more sustainable transport.

Looking to future plans, low emission zones, which restrict the most polluting vehicles, are being considered as an option to reduce emissions long term (Aberdeencity.gov.uk, n.d). Freight and buses cause 80% of the air quality issues within the city which is why it has been proposed that low emission zones are considered specifically for buses and freight vehicles to be diverted away from the centre or to operate in a more environmentally manor.

The development of the APWR has allowed opportunities for more active travel to take place in the city. Cycling schemes being introduced by the Aberdeen active travel plan who have enforced 20mph restrictions, cycle lanes and advanced stopping lines (Aberdeencity.gov.uk, 2017, p. 2-3). During 2015/16 £2 million was invested in new signage, cycle parking and safety campaigns in the city to aid active travel (Aberdeencity.gov.uk, 2017, p.1). As the active travel plan details the city is utilising the freed road space caused by the AWPR to promote cycling (Aberdeencity.gov.uk, 2017). An increase in the number of people choosing to cycle also helps reduce the volumes of cars on the road, further reducing congestion levels. An example of where active travel is being prioritized is in Oslo, where they are aiming to be car free. To achieve this they have started to prioritise people over cars, turn parking spaces into bike lanes and create pedestrian only zones. Active travel is more attractive as there is less air pollution, which allows walkers and cyclists to explore freely (Wolfe, 2018). In Aberdeen, campaigns such as Bikeability Scotland and get ‘back in the saddle’ have been rolled out in order to help both children and adults gain confidence cycling. Two of the biggest barriers to active travel is safety and air pollution. The newly part-pedestrianised Broad Street could be a step forward towards increased use of active travel and changing transport habits. This measure could be built on further by using the Broad street model to pedestrianised Union Street. By removing the slow moving traffic on Union Street this could have a very positive impact on both congestion and pollution in the future (Aberdeencity.gov.uk, 2017).

Transport priorities need to change, which is why initiatives such as car sharing schemes have been introduced as a means of reducing congestion and emissions further within the city. The city council has set up a car share scheme where individuals are able to enter journey details and find a match of someone doing the same journey. This reduces the amount of pressure on the road infrastructure and the amount of pollution from an unnecessary amount of cars when often they only have one person in them. (Aberdeenshire.gov.uk, 2019). Car sharing schemes, which are particularly effective in the shire, generates more space on roads, which makes active travel a lot more desirable. A scheme which London has adopted is not only having a car-sharing scheme, but to introduce electric cars into the scheme. Zipcar UK added 325 zero emissions electric cars to their fleet in an effort to cut down on an all time high levels of congestion and pollution in the city. This is been a great success as 20,000 trips have been made in the EV cars encouraging a more sustainable way to travel (Zipcar.co.uk, 2018).

The more people who engage in active travel the less congested and polluted the streets will be. A new measure, which has been implemented, is cycle and pedestrian segregation zones such as on Diamond Bridge (Aberdeencity.gov.uk, 2017). The project has been hailed a success, as it has not only been busy with cars but also for people taking part in active travel (McKay, 2017). This highlights that if more areas were to provide designated areas for active travel, in the long run it would contribute greatly to reducing congestion and pollution within the city.

Traffic congestion and pollution continue to be, and are likely to always be, issues that impact Aberdeen. This essay has found through analsysing various measures being taken or considered that there are a number of ways to tackle the linked challenges of congestion and pollution. It is clear that initiatives to tackle either congestion or pollution issues has a positive impact on the other. It is important to recognise the contribution that freight traffic and traffic around the shire have had in greatly adding to the congestion in Aberdeen city. The AWPR has been instrumental in tackling the issues in question and has opened up space for new schemes such as the active travel plan, hydrogen buses and park and rides. This has in turn also caused emissions to drop throughout the city. It is important to acknowledge, as has been noted throughout this essay, that future plans such as low emission zones and rolling out the Broad Street model onto Union Street would reduce both congestion and emission. Overall it is evident that the issue of congestion and pollution is beginning to be addressed in Aberdeen although there are still gaps that can be filled in order to further address the problem.

References

Aberdeencity.gov.uk. (2017). Aberdeen Active Travel Action Plan 2017-2021. [online] Available at: https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/Aberdeen Active Travel Action Plan.pdf [Accessed 22 Oct. 2019].

Aberdeencity.gov.uk. (n.d). Clean transport in the city | Aberdeen City Council. [online] Available at: https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/services/roads-transport-and-parking/clean-transport-city [Accessed 20 Oct. 2019].

Aberdeencity.gov.uk. (2018). 2018 Air Quality Annual Progress Report (APR) for Aberdeen City Council. [online] Available at: https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2018-07/Air Quality Annual Progress Report 2018.pdf [Accessed 24 Oct. 2019].

Aberdeenshire.gov.uk. (2019). Car Share Scheme. [online] Available at: https://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/roads-and-travel/transportation/commuting/car-share-scheme/. [Accessed 18 Oct. 2019].

AWPR | Go North East. (n.d.). #GoGreener: Sustainability for North East Scotland | AWPR. [online] Available at: https://awprgonortheast.co.uk/the-campaign/go-greener/) [Accessed 23 Oct. 2019].

Carrier, M., Domingue, J., Duarte, F. and Mercier, J. (2014). Understanding continuity in sustainable transport planning in Curitiba – Jean Mercier, Fabio Duarte, Julien Domingue, Mario Carrier, 2015. [online] SAGE Journals. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0042098014538526 [Accessed 28 Nov. 2019].

Comittees.aberdeenshire.gov.uk. (2014). Quick Facts – benefits of the Aberdeen Western Peripheral Route. [online] Available at: http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:t1jyL7gfaSMJ:committees.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/FunctionsPage.aspx?dsid=68341&action=GetFileFromDB

Visual process is the capability to generate, perceive, analyse, synthesise, manipulate, transform and think with spatial patterns and stimuli (WISC–IV – 2008). Visual processing poses a huge computational challenge for the brain. The brain has evolved to well-ordered and effective neural systems to reach the demands. Over the past many years, in order to understand this neural system and complicated pathway, immense research has been done (Prasad